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Summary of current conditions in the Tropical Pacific

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Acknowledgments

United States
L. Mangum/T. Wright, NOAA/PMEL TAO Array
The locations of the present moorings in the TAO array are shown in Figure 2. In addition to the ATLAS moorings throughout the array, there are 5 sites where current measurements are being made. During the past year, nine next generation ATLAS moorings were deployed, with six of those replacing traditional ATLAS moorings. At three sites, reverse catenary next generation moorings were deployed nearby traditional ATLAS moorings for intercomparison.

Velocity Measurements. During the past year, upward looking Doppler current profilers placed on subsurface moorings replaced the surface PROTEUS moorings at the three PMEL current sites (0°,110°W; 0°,140°W, 0°,165°E). At these sites, traditional surface current meter moorings are also deployed to provide surface measurements as well as current comparisons. JAMSTEC will take over ADCP measurements at 0°,165°E in 1997. PMEL will continue the current measurements at 0°,170°W which were begun by R. Weisberg (University of South Florida) in 1988, with a deployment of a subsurface mooring in August 1996. The complete current record from 0°,170°W between 1988 and 1994 is now available as part of the TAO data base at PMEL.

Salinity Monitoring. At the TIP-4 meeting in September 1995, a revised salinity monitoring plan was adopted for the western Pacific. During the past year, surface SEACATs were in place on 16 TAO moorings between 156øE and 180øW. Instrumentation was provided by ORSTOM and PMEL. Data return from 1996 was approximately 85% for the past year. It is planned to continue surface salinity measurements during the next year.

Next Generation ATLAS Moorings. Next generation ATLAS moorings use inductive coupling technology to transmit the subsurface data to the surface electronics package, eliminating the need for the thermistor cable. These moorings are described in Milburn et al. (1996). Standard sensors on the next generation ATLAS buoys include wind speed and direction, air temperature, relative humidity, sea surface temperature, ten subsurface temperatures and three subsurface pressures to monitor vertical excursions of the subsurface modules. Additional sensors such as conductivity, rainfall, and radiation can be added as special projects require.

From the standard suite of sensors, the data that are available in real time will consist of several spot values of the surface measurements each day as well as the previous day's average of both the surface and subsurface data. Ten-minute data is stored onboard for all sensors and will be available after the mooring is recovered. Four daily-averaged conductivities can be transmitted in real time and ten minute samples are also stored in the sensor modules. An R.M. Young capacitance rain gauge is presently being tested; one minute accumulations will be stored onboard and the daily mean, standard deviation, maximum rate, and the percent time raining will be transmitted back. Radiation measurements will be made using an Eppley PSP radiometer sampled at 5 Hz; 2 minute averages will be stored and the transmitted data will consist of a daily mean, maximum, and standard deviation (computed for daylight hours).

During the next year 10-15 new next generation systems will be deployed in the TAO array. ARM has funded incoming shortwave radiation measurements along 165°E and next generation ATLAS moorings with radiation sensors will be deployed there in the next year. Discussions regarding possible rainfall and conductivity measurements are also underway with the TRMM project office.

Reference:

Milburn, H.B., P.D. McLain, C. Meinig, 1996: ATLAS Buoy - Reengineered for the Next Decade, In: Proceedings of the IEEE/MTS OCEANS 96 Conference, Ft. Lauderdale, FL, Sept 1996, 698-702.

Data Availability. TAO data continues to be available to the international community through anonymous FTP file transfer, the World Wide Web, and the GTS. New Java applets on the Web allow interactive displays of surface meteorological data, interactive browsing of TAO time series, and animations of monthly SST and surface wind anomalies (http://www.epic.noaa.gov/tao/select/timeselect.html). Another new page displays the BMRC ocean analysis data provided by N. Smith based on temperature profile data from XBTs and TAO moorings (http://www.pmel.noaa.gov/bmrc-display.html).

The COARE Moored Data Archive was established this year at PMEL for dissemination of all moored measurements taken during the COARE field program. Data provided from various principal investigators and institutions are available for downloading (http://www.pmel.noaa.gov/coare/coare-data.html).

The TAO Project Office works closely with Service Argos and the Buoy Quality Control Network sponsored by the Data Buoy Coordination Panel (DBCP) to ensure high quality realtime GTS data. During the month of October 1996, over 1500 subsurface temperature profiles and over 4500 surface observations were distributed on the GTS network. During the past year, PMEL has received GTS statistics on data availability from the MEDS office in Canada. For an eight month period between March and November 1996, 50% of the GTS surface messages were received at MEDS within three hours of the observation time; 90% of all messages received within seven hours.

Ocean-Atmosphere Carbon Exchange Studies (OACES). Two TAO moorings equipped with biological/chemical sensors developed by the Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute (MBARI) and PMEL's CO2 group were deployed in November 1996 at 0°,155°W and 2°S,170°W. Sensors include pCO2, NO3, spectroradiometer, transmissometer, absorption meter, fluorometer, and PAR. The goals of the OACES project are to determine the spatial/temporal variability of primary production, carbon dioxide and nutrient concentrations, and their relation to variations in the physical environment; to determine the biological and chemical responses to climatic forcing; to provide data for calibration/validation of satellite ocean color measurements.

TAO Array Support Vessel. Though delivery of the vessel was delayed by several months, the NOAA Ship Ka'imimoana entered service to support the TAO Array in June 1996. NOAA provided the use of the NOAA Ship Malcolm Baldrige to cover the delay period. Ka'imimoana has been modified to support the TAO Project as her primary task. In 1996, she made 5 cruises. The vessel recovered and deployed 38 TAO moorings and serviced or visited 33 moorings during this period. Ka'imimoana will service the array from 95°W to 180°W and it will share the servicing of moorings along 165°E with JAMSTEC vessels.

Ka'imimoana Home Page. A new Web page was developed with the help of TAO personnel to provide information from NOAA's new research vessel Ka'imimoana which is dedicated to servicing the TAO array. Digital pictures and information from the ship are updated daily while the ship is at sea. Preliminary CTD section plots are also displayed from plots made onboard the ship and transmitted back to PMEL. More information about the Ka'imimoana can be found at http://www.pmel.noaa.gov/tao/kaimi/

TAO Array Annual Operating Plan. Ship time support for the TAO array in 1996 is summarized in Figure 3 and the following table. During 1996, four ships were used in support of the array: the NOAA ships Ka'imimoana and Malcolm Baldrige (USA), the IFREMER ship R/V Atalante (France) and the JAMSTEC ship R/V Kaiyo (Japan). NOAA provided 231 days of ship time between 95°W and 165°E and JAMSTEC provided 65 days of ship time west of the date line. Four days of TAO mooring work on the Atalante was included as part of an ORSTOM JGOFS cruise along 180° (see section 4.5).

Three ships of opportunity recovered drifting TAO buoys or serviced moored instrumentation during this period. These ships were Moana Wave (U. of Hawaii), Thomas Thompson (U. of Washington), and Discoverer (NOAA).

In 1997, JAMSTEC will provide 65 days of ship time in the western Pacific, and NOAA will provide 249 days (236 in the eastern/central Pacific and 13 days in the western Pacific). In addition, Taiwan may be able to provide ship time in October 1997 to support the array.

Ship Time Summary

Maintenance Requirements. The TAO array has specific scheduling and ship time requirements to ensure continuity of the data and maintenance of equipment. Surface current meter moorings require recovery/deployment every six months, whereas thermistor chain and ADCP moorings require recovery/deployment every twelve months. All sites should be visited at least every six; months to check the status of the equipment, verify data quality, and make any necessary repairs.

To meet these requirements, approximately 235 days of ship time per year are needed to service moorings between 95°W and 180°, and approximately 90 days of ship time per year are needed to service moorings between 165°E and 137°E. These requirements were not met in 1996. Only 220 days of ship time were available in the eastern Pacific and 80 days of shiptime in the western Pacific. Requirements east of the date line would have been met had the Ka'imimoana used all its available ship time in the eastern and central Pacific. However, faced with a major shortfall of ship time along 165°E, the Ka'imimoana was diverted to that meridian in June 1996.

The result of these ship time shortfalls was that several mooring sites, most notably along 165°E and 156°E, were not serviced twice during the year. For those sites visited less frequently than about once every six months, both the quantity and the quality of the data are potentially compromised. Irregular servicing in the western Pacific compounds the problems of fishing vandalism, since data gaps can be longer than would otherwise be the case for want of replacement or repair of damaged instrumentation.

With an increased Ka'imimoana work schedule in 1997, ship time requirements will be satisfied between 95°W and 180°. However, even with a Ka'imimoana leg along 165°E scheduled for mid-1997, there will be a shortfall of 12 days of ship time in the western Pacific without further commitments.

Vandalism. Vandalism remains a serious concern especially in the western and eastern boundaries of the array. The informational brochure discussed at TIP-4 has been completed and is available in five languages: English, Japanese, Spanish, Chinese, and Korean. The brochure has been widely distributed through government agencies and the fishing industry in the Pacific. Panel members were asked to assist in distribution of the brochures.

Engineering attempts to minimize impact of vandalism consists of hardware modifications such as a cage around the top part of the electronics to protect connectors, as well as modification to the connectors to prevent damage.

During August 1996, NASDA successfully launched ADEOS, which is called "Midori." It has eight sensors, among which NSCAT, OCTS, and IMG are expected to contribute to oceanography. OCTS gives ocean color data, which has been awaited for a long time (since CZCS). It is expected that ZMG will give SST to within 0.5°C accuracy.

STA has defined and submitted a new proposal which is called "Frontier Research Program." It is a 20 year plan, and has six research topics. In the next fiscal year, the first three topics, namely climate change prediction, hydrological cycle prediction, and global warming prediction will be initiated. TAO activity is strongly related to the climate change prediction topic.

Japan (Y. Kuroda and M. Hishida, Japan Marine Science and Technology Center): The status and plans of the TRITON buoy program at JAMSTEC were reported. The principal scientific objective is to understand heat transports focusing on ENSO, Asian Monsoon and decadal scale oceanic variations that influence climate change in the Pacific rim and around the world. The first deployment of four buoys is planned in March 1998 in conjunction with ATLAS buoys to carry out an intercomparison and to ensure the data compatibility. It will be extended to mid-latitude sea in FY 1999 and the Indian Ocean in FY 2000.

The status and plans of the TRITON buoy program at JAMSTEC were reported. The principal scientific objective is to understand heat transports focusing on ENSO, Asian Monsoon and decadal scale oceanic variations that influence climate change in the Pacific rim and around the world. The first deployment of four buoys is planned in March 1998 in conjunction with ATLAS buoys to carry out an intercomparison study. Deployment in the Indian Ocean will begin in FY 2000 (Figure 4).

JAMSTEC provided 65 days of ship time in FY 1996 and will provide 65 days of ship time in FY 1997 for servicing moorings of the TOCS (Tropical Ocean Climate Study) program. Some of this ship time has been and will continue to be available to recover and deploy ATLAS moorings west of 156°E and a few ATLAS buoys along 165°E.

At present, Korea has no definitive plan for further involvement in the TAO program. Until now, meteorologists have led the Korean contribution to TAO. But, it is hoped that Korean oceanographers and Korean Ocean Research and Development Institute (KORDI) involve more actively in the international activities related to TAO in near future. Recently, in July 1996, Korean government established a new Ministry, the Ministry of Ocean and Fishery, and KORDI is now belong to the new ministry. We hope that the new ministry recognize the importance of the international contribution to the TAO program and KORDI can involve in TAO with sufficient resources in very near future.

In additional to the work in the tropical equatorial Pacific Ocean, we plan to deploy three newest generation ATLAS buoys in the South China Sea. This is a joint research project between the PMEL and NTU. The data collected by these three buoys will be transmitted back to the PMEL on a daily basis and be available to the public. The first buoy will be in the water by April 1997 while the other two buoys are scheduled for April 1998. Within approximately 10 miles of each ATLAS buoy, a subsurface ADCP (Acoustic Doppler Current Profiler) buoy will be deployed to monitor the upper ocean current velocity variations. In addition, an array of current meters will be deployed across the Luzon Strait to study the water exchange between the South China Sea and the Kuroshio. Although the above are part of regional work of South China Sea Monsoon Experiment (SCSMEX), they will be able to provide new information on the global impact of ENSO. Specifically, one of our governmental agents will possibly take over these three ATLAS buoys after the SCSMEX program and keep them in the South China Sea as long-term observing stations, so that, the ENSO effects on the South China Sea can be studied over a long period of time.

Over the next three years, except for occasional mooring replacement with the possible venue of a French R/V in the Pacific, the French participation in the TAO array will be centered in the tropical Atlantic, with the launch in 1997 of the PIRATA experiment. This pilot experiment will be implemented as a collaborative multinational effort issued from Brazil, France and USA (see Jacques Servain's report).

The French CLIVAR program is building up, with the submission in November 1996 to the PNEDC (Programme National d'Etude de la Dynamique du Climat) Scientific Committee of a common set of proposals from various French research groups. In particular, the CLIVAR/GOALS contribution will be composed of an Indo-Pacific program and a tropical Atlantic program. The Indo-Pacific program is the continuation of the French effort in the tropical Pacific during TOGA (now named ECOP for Etudes Climatiques de l'Ocean Pacifique) and of the JADE throughflow experiment; a better coordination and use of observations at sea and modeling activities will be the center piece of this Indo-Pacific program. The tropical Atlantic program (named ECLAT for Etudes Climatiques dans l'Atlantique Tropical) will deal with the coupled ocean-atmosphere system together with its role in the climate of the surrounding continents. New observations at sea will be proposed with in particular the French participation in the PIRATA experiment.

The cooperative western Pacific salinity monitoring TAO project is maintained by NOAA/PMEL and ORSTOM/Noumea. Only one SEACAT instrument has been lost in 1996; 35 instruments are still in use, with 23 right now deployed at sea. This cooperative effort results in the instrumentation of three meridians in the western and central Pacific along 156°E, 165°E, and 180°. The corresponding TAO salinity data bank is assembled under the supervision of Paul Freitag at NOAA/PMEL. This salinity project together with the ORSTOM-Noumea Ship-of-Opportunity surface salinity program appear increasingly important for process studies in the warm pool, such as the formation of the barrier layer.

Many scientists from mainland France and ORSTOM-Noumea have used the TAO data in 1996 for various and complementary scientific purposes. Several types of models (OPA/LODYC and Gent and Cane OGCMs, long-wave linear model) were validated with TAO data. Algorithms for extracting wind stress field from ERS-1 and ERS-2 data were improved by the Space Oceanographic group at IFREMER-Brest through the comparison with TAO data. The Groupe de Meteorologie a Moyenne Echelle at Meteo-France is using the TAO data for their own TOGA-COARE research. Hourly heat fluxes along surface drifter trajectory in the COARE domain were determined with the help of TAO data. The dominance of zonal advection in the ENSO displacement of the eastern edge of the warm pool was demonstrated with the outputs from three models and four types of near-surface currents, including the TAO current meter data. This demonstration was made possible through the evidence of a convergence of water masses in the equatorial band, resulting in a salinity front that was observed in particular from salinity data taken on some of the TAO moorings. During La Niña, the zonal displacement of saltier water from the eastern Pacific into the fresh water of the warm pool results in saltier water in the surface layer of the western Pacific. Together with the presence of a salinity maximum around 150 - 200 m, this suggests an apparent upward motion into the surface layer at the equator. The question about the importance or existence of an equatorial upwelling in the warm pool during La Niña was therefore considered in view of TAO temperature series at the equator. An open-ocean validation of the TOPEX/Poseidon altimeters, using two TAO moorings at 2°S,164°E and 2°S,156°E outfitted with additional sensors from surface-to-bottom led to the discovery of strong semi-diurnal internal tide in the middle of the COARE domain. Additional analyses, using these TAO data and high-frequency TOPEX/Poseidon data, resulted in a better understanding on the formation and propagation of these internal tides. A project to build bimonthly temperature fields over the whole tropical Pacific during 1979 to 1996 from XBT and CTDs data, through objective analysis requires an estimate of the error field. The longest TAO temperature time series were used to estimate the high frequency noise that cannot be resolved from XBT data. Finally, the relationship between biological and physical processes, as observed during the French JGOFS FLUPAC cruise along the equator in October 1994, was determined in view of the large space-time scale determined through the TAO array.

Sea Level Measurements. The existing 13 functional tidal observatories along the Indian coast and islands, maintained by the Survey of India, are being equipped with modern tide gauges (with accuracy of 3 mm) under the Sea Level Monitoring and Modelling (SELMAM) Programme and GLOSS Programme with the support of Department of Ocean Development (DOD) and Department of Science and Technology (DST), respectively. Acoustic tide gauges with higher accuracy are being installed at selected stations.

A National Tidal Data Center has been established for archiving and disseminating data to the user community. Historical data are being analysed and interpreted with dynamical models, with National Institute of Oceanography (NIO) as the nodal agency.

XBT Observations. A long term programme of XBT observations for routine monitoring of the upper ocean thermal structure along a few selected shipping lanes in the tropical Indian Ocean was launched by NIO in 1990 with the support of DST. To start with, observations were carried out along Madras-Port Blair (Andamans)-Calcutta route in the Bay of Bengal and subsequently extended to Bombay-Mauritius route (in 1992) and to Visakhapatnam-Singapore route (in 1995). Temperature data in the upper 800 meters (using the standard Deep Blue XBT probes) together with surface meteorological data are being collected at one degree (100 km) intervals along these routes, atleast once in two months, depending on availability of merchant ships. It is planned to use XCTD probes and extend the observations to two additional routes (Cochin-Muscat and Bombay-Mombasa) during the next 5 years.

The data are screened for quality, processed for archiving in standard formats and disseminated to user community including TOGA subsurface Data Centre at Brest (France). The data have been analysed to study the evolution of the upper ocean thermal structure on annual time scales and its year to year variability. Relationship between upper ocean heat content and cyclogenesis (in the Bay of Bengal) and monsoon activity are also being investigated.

Drifting Buoy Programme. A drifting buoy programme was launched by NIO in 1991 with the support of DOD. It forms an important component of the seatruth collection effort for the National Ocean Remote Sensing Programme aimed at developing a Marine Satellite Information Service (MARSIS) for the Indian seas. During the last 6 years more than 40 drifters were deployed by the Indian Research Vessels Gaveshani and Sagar Kanya in the Arabian Sea, Bay of Bengal and the equatorial Indian Ocean and the data on surface meteorological and oceanographic parameters were acquired through Argos System. Besides WOCE drifters with SST and pressure sensors, a few multiparameter TOGA drifters with sensors for air temperature and winds were also used. Since July 1995, the data from these drifters are being disseminated on GTS. A few prototype drifters developed indigenously at NIO were also deployed and their performance is being evaluated. The drifters worked for periods ranging from six months to one and half years. It is planned to intensify this programme through deployment of 20 - 30 drifters per year in a phased manner during the next 5 years (1997 - 2002).

A collaborative programme with Global Drifter Centre at AOML/NOAA has been initiated in 1996 and a few GDC drifters have been deployed by NIO in the equatorial Indian Ocean. A few drifters are being assembled/fabricated at NIO for deployment under this programme. It is planned to initiate such collaborative programmes with other organizations also, for mutual benefit.

The drifter data collected to date have been screened for quality and processed for archival in standard formats. Analysis of these data for description of diurnal variations of SST and inertial oscillations/circulations and construction of climatologies of surface drifts on different time scales is in progress. It is planned to construct surface circulation patterns from satellite altimetry and scatterometry and compare the same with those derived from drifting buoys.

Deep Sea Moorings & Moored Buoy Programme. Under the Indo-German collaborative programme on Particle Flux Studies in the north Indian Ocean initiated in 1986, NIO has deployed and maintained deep sea moorings (with sediment traps and current meters) at 9 locations in the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal. At 3 of these locations in the central Arabian Sea, six current meters were moored under the Indian JGOFS Programme. Two moorings with acoustic transceivers, tilt meters and current meters were deployed in the Arabian Sea during May 1993 under the Ocean Acoustic Tomography Programme, from Sagar Kanya.

A National Data Buoy Programme sponsored by DOD has been initiated in 1996. It envisages deployment of twelve met-ocean moored data buoys at selected locations in the seas around India, over a period of 3 years (at a rate of four buoys per year). Eight of these buoys will be moored in the shallow water regions along the Indian coast and the remaining four in the deeper waters (two each in the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal). All the buoys will be equipped with sensors for measurement of various meteorological and oceanographic parameters viz. atmospheric pressure, air temperature, wind speed and direction, SST, wave height and period, current speed and direction, salinity, dissolved oxygen, etc. Besides these four buoys, deployment of another ten moored met-ocean data buoys in the deeper waters of the Bay of Bengal, Arabian Sea and equatorial Indian Ocean is planned during the next 10 years under the Indian Climate Research Programme.

TAO Moorings. A proposal on a long term collaborative programme between India, Australia and USA for operating/monitoring a line of three TAO moorings (with temperature recorders and current meter arrays) in the eastern Indian Ocean was mooted by the Chairmen of the Indian Ocean Panel of CCCO and TOGA-TAO Implementation Panel in 1993. NIO responded positively to this proposal and is looking forward to actively participate in this programme. NIO can provide the technical and logistic support for deployment and recovery of the instrumented moorings using Sagar Kanya. Following this initiative, it is planned to extend the TAO array in the Indian Ocean further during the next 10 years under the Indian Climate Research Programme.

Operational climate activities in Indonesia are conducted by the Meteorology and Geophysics Agency (BMG), while research activities are conducted by different research institutes, Agency for the Assessment and Application of Technology (BPPT), National Institute of Aeronautics and Space (LAPAN), Indonesian Institute of Science (LIPI), National Coordination Agency for Surveying and Mapping, Dishidros-Al, and universities. The Scientific Community on Atmospheric Dynamics is comprised of researchers from these institutions.

Available resources, including facilities and funding, are coordinated by scientific meetings.

Within the Indonesian development program scheme, improving climate prediction capabilities is one priority. This is due to the fact that agriculture is an important sector in Indonesia. Strategic and tactical planning for agriculture require a better climate prediction. The strategy to deal with climate research is to converge research activities. The avenues are through the Integrated Excellence Research (RUT) program, the National Strategic Excellence Research (RUSNAS) program, through the International Integrated Excellence Research (RUTI) program, through international collaborative projects, and through research assessment projects in each institution.

As an ongoing climate project, LAPAN has started to install the CSIRO nine-level atmospheric general circulation model and Langrangian atmospheric dispersion model on a parallel processor computer. A similar machine will be installed in BPPT. SCAR has started to develop climate data base in cooperation with Japanese scientists. SCAR will start to study ocean climate through cooperative work between BPPT and JAMSTEC in order to extend TAO array (18 buoys will be installed within and around the Indonesian region). ARLINDO data and TAO array data will be used in this study. It is hoped through this collaborative work, SCAR could actively participate in the CLIVAR program. Modelling studies will be developed through RUSNAS (proposed for FY 1997 - 2000)

Through RUT, the impact of monsoon-ENSO on mesoscale atmospheric circulation will be studied. Available atmospheric radars (Serpong and Biak) and intensive atmospheric sounding data will be used to observe tropical atmospheric waves. This study will start in FY 1997 - 1998, and last for three years.

In line with its main task, SCAR will facilitate international cooperative work with Indonesian scientific communities working on climate. SCAR also seek the opportunities to collaborate with other international program, such as SCSMEX, GAME, and the GAME-T program.

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